Document Type : Original Article
Authors
1
MA in Dramatic Literature, Faculty of Arts, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
2
Associate Professor, Department of Dramatic Literature, Faculty of Arts, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran .
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Theater, Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and Arts, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, North Carolina, USA.
Abstract
Female playwrights have often attempted to reflect less-discussed social issues and the psychological complexities of women in their works, serving as a mirror to these concerns. The study and examination of women’s works reveal aspects of their personalities and lives that may have been overlooked or neglected by male critics and authors. This article aims to analyze the feminine contradictions in the first play written by an English woman, Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedy of Mariam, highlighting the female archetypes presented in the play. Elizabeth Cary, considering the background of female images in the history of drama and the Renaissance period, created several female characters in The Tragedy of Mariam whose actions and dialogues are unprecedented in comparison to contemporary works. The study uses Leslie Ferris’s feminine archetypes to classify the female contradictions and examine the female characters in the dramatic world. Ferris identifies five female archetypes: the patient prostitute, the silenced heroine, the headstrong woman, the golden girl, and the woman playing male roles. This research finds that Cary resolves the conflicts and contradictions among these female archetypes only through death and annihilation. The play is set in the Renaissance period, when patriarchal structures became more systematic through religion. The characters of Salome and Alexandra embody the headstrong and masculine woman, while Graphina represents the patient prostitute, Doris the golden girl, and Mariam the silenced heroine and headstrong woman. Elaine Beilin, in her article “Elizabeth Cary and The Tragedy of Mariam,” suggests that Cary, influenced by her religious beliefs and studies, aims to create a Christian figure in Mariam. Mariam’s dignified death is akin to Christ’s crucifixion, sorrowful yet redemptive. Considering the time period in which Cary lived, it’s not surprising that she may have identified with male authors, scholars, and prophets, or at least subscribed to the notion of women as inherently flawed. The husband’s dominance over the woman, a concern of the author, is evident in Herod’s abandonment of his first wife and his remarriage, contrasted with Salome’s lack of right to divorce. At first glance, Salome’s character in The Tragedy of Mariam appears to be a stereotypical femme fatale, responsible for the downfall of the play’s hero, Mariam. However, upon closer examination, particularly considering the author’s personal life, it becomes clear that Salome represents a facet of the author’s own inner conflict. Salome embodies the author’s desire to challenge patriarchal dominance, as evident in her own struggles with her husband and family. The author’s daughter notes that her father was a strict patriarch, and although her mother was strong-willed, she had learned to acquiesce to his demands. The need to appease her father often took precedence, and the author’s own experiences as an intellectual woman, mother, and caregiver to eleven children led to feelings of stress, depression, and a reliance on sleep as an escape. As we know, Christianity, like Judaism and other Abrahamic religions, although promoting monogamy as the ideal family structure, citing Adam and Eve as a model, and criticizing polygamy in the Hebrew Bible, allows men to remarry if they can provide financially and justly. Similarly, the Torah and Talmud grant this right to Jewish men. In the play, there are several references to the Ten Commandments, highlighting the biblical context. The female author’s dissatisfaction with this issue is expressed through Doris’s words, where she accuses Mariam of complicity in betrayal, and Mariam defends herself by citing the law. In this context, Mariam can be seen as a figure who takes upon herself the burden of women’s sins, much like Christ, and is thus sacrificed. Cary’s struggles with her faith are well-documented, and her eventual conversion from Protestantism to Catholicism is significant. The Catholic tradition places greater emphasis on the Virgin Mary, and it’s possible that Cary sought to reclaim and reimagine the feminine divine. Mariam’s rejection of Herod’s love and her defiance in the second half of the play can be seen as a form of rebellion, a deliberate attempt by Cary to subvert the traditional portrayal of women as submissive and obedient. This reinterpretation of the female protagonist is a testament to Cary’s innovative and bold storytelling. The play portrays women as enemies of each other, reflecting the society of Cary’s time. The fluidity of the main character, Mariam, among these female archetypes highlights the complexity of female contradictions. This study introduces Elizabeth Cary and highlights the significance of her work, offering insights into the feminine perspective in drama and theater, valuable for researchers in literature, theater, women’s studies, and sociology. The Renaissance period provided an opportunity for upper-class women to pursue education and knowledge alongside men. Many institutions and families collected books and created personal libraries, allowing women to access new ideas and experiences. As a result, women began to create and write about their inner and outer worlds in various forms, such as stories, plays, and travelogues. However, for centuries, even the few women who managed to write and be active in the literary world were overshadowed by male writers and scholars. With the emergence of women’s studies, particularly from the mid-1970s, a revisionist historiography sought to rediscover and introduce these women writers, reviving their works and bringing them out of obscurity. Elizabeth Cary’s works, including The Tragedy of Mariam, were among those rediscovered and studied for the first time. This play was translated into Persian in 2020, introducing Cary to Iranian scholars and artists. Our study analyzes the female characters in Cary’s play, using Leslie Ferris’s theories to examine the conflicts and contradictions among women in the play. Before delving into the analysis, it is essential to introduce Elizabeth Cary and Leslie Ferris’s theories, providing a foundation for understanding their contributions to the dramatic discourse in Iran. The Tragedy of Mariam begins with the false news of Herod’s death, which triggers a series of illicit relationships and betrayals among those around him. Mariam, Herod’s second wife, confesses that she never loved him, despite his obsessive love for her. When Herod returns, his sister Salome, who is promiscuous and treacherous, plots against Mariam and spreads rumors about her infidelity. The play explores the complexities of female relationships and the societal expectations placed upon women during the Renaissance period. The play’s portrayal of female relationships is complex, with women often pitting themselves against each other. The character of Mariam is particularly noteworthy, as she navigates the societal expectations placed upon her and struggles to assert her agency. The play ultimately ends with Mariam’s death, which is orchestrated by Salome. The play suggests that the societal constraints placed upon women during this period lead to their downfall and that women’s agency is often suppressed. The analysis highlights the ways in which the play portrays the tensions and contradictions faced by women during the Renaissance period and how these tensions ultimately lead to tragic consequences.
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